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Introduction

Racism and xenophobia

Racism is an English word consisting of “race” and “ism”. Racism is a hypothesis on the basis of which the characteristic characteristics and abilities of people are determined by their ethnic origin. The belief in the superiority of one ethnic group over others is one of the basic principles of racism. Racism is a special type of prejudice that forms inflexibly on the basis of false arguments and the generalization of certain characteristics to a group of people. Prejudice is derived from the Latin word “Praeiudicium” and means judgment before the facts have been clarified.

In fact, racism has always occurred when one allows one’s own prejudices to hinder the growth and development of another. People who deny people of the same ethnicity or culture access to certain professions, housing, political and social rights and educational opportunities under certain pretexts are also perpetrators of racial discrimination.

In this article, I am looking for an answer to the following question. What is racism? What factors cause the emergence and intensification of racism? In the end, how can people create the conditions to reduce and destroy racism?

  • Racism and xenophobia
    •   History of racism

Racism is not a static and transhistorical concept, but a discourse that has taken different forms in different epochs of human history. But its main essence is the same: to recreate the dualism of “us” and “them” and to consider the “we” superior to the “you” based on racial, ethnic or cultural stereotypes. At least from Ancient Greece to ancient Rome, racism has existed and is documented in writing with the discrimination of millions of people.

The 20th century model of racism in India has also sacrificed millions of lives for the caste system and the resulting discrimination. In South Africa’s apartheid system, people of color defended their privileges by stirring up hatred and contempt for people of color, calling them unworthy of its democracy. This was also the case for leading personalities in Switzerland who maintained good business relations with the South African elite. In the United States, discrimination and slavery made many blacks victims of this dark thinking. The genocide in Rwanda at the end of the last century should also be mentioned here. The centuries-old domination of the cattle-breeding Tutsis over the peasant Hutus finally led to the racially motivated murderous revenge of the Hutus against the Tusis. In the last century, the National Socialists defined dissenters as “the others”. Moreover, based on the theory of Social Darwinism, they regarded gypsies or Roma, disabled people and even the elderly not as “useful” to society, but as an obstacle to progress. This racism came to such a head and culminated in the so-called Final Solution, the industrial extermination of millions of people who were discriminated against.

In Afghanistan, Pashtun rulers have for decades defined the majority of the Afghan people as “foreign” or “different” under the influence of Nazism and have practiced ethnic and religious discrimination that has cost the lives of millions of Afghan people, killed, maimed and expelled. Fascists in Afghanistan were very destructive. They changed the name of the country. They changed the name of the national currency. They destroyed historical sites and ancient monuments. This fascist idea was copied by the Pashtun kings from the Nazis, and historical documents show that they had a close relationship with Hitler. This was a false and very destructive imitation. The Taliban are now a prominent example of ethnic racism among Pashtun rulers.  Most people know the Taliban only as a religious extremist group.  But the fact is that they are a racist-extremist group. Their extreme attitude is marked by racism, but religion is used as a means of justification.

  • Classical and modern racism

Racism in its classical form was based on the idea that, from a biological point of view, there are superior and inferior ethnic groups, and that this superiority and inferiority can explain and justify inequality in society.

However, despite the obsolescence of the theory of biological differences, cultural and behavioral racism has not disappeared.  For example, the economic backwardness of blacks is still attributed to their innate ‘laziness’, reflecting ‘biological racism’ or ‘social Darwinism’. Ibram X. Kendi believes that modern racism should be sought in politics and ideas and in the context of power relations, not individuals. Modern racism is the defense of the power and privileges of one group at the expense of the inferiority and disadvantage of other groups.  As Kendi argues, it’s common for everyone, even racists, to say they’re not racist.  But at the same time, people are expressing their views and supporting racist policies. We know many around us who speak out against racism but call religious and colored minorities “unclean” and attribute a blanket set of negative traits and heinous crimes to an ethnic or national group.  Accordingly, Kendi states that “the racist antithesis is not non-racist, but anti-racist.” What is the difference between the two? A racist believes that problems are rooted in the nature of a group of people, but an anti-racist believes that the roots of people’s problems should be sought in power relations and current politics. “A racist actively or through indifference perpetuates racial inequalities, an anti-racist counteracts these inequalities.”   It emphasizes the active reaction and criticism of individuals to racist policies and behaviors, rather than the individual moral effort to free themselves from racism. He believes that the lack of efforts by members of society to perceive racist thoughts and policies has contributed to the survival of racism in society and the state. The main problem with new and hidden forms of racism is that they permeate everyday life, the workplace, the media, political and social discourses and even the politics of many political parties. This has even led to the growth of racist and xenophobic parties in some European countries. In general, it can be said that the foundation of modern racism rests on four pillars:

1. Separation of “we” from ” them”.

2. The inherent alienation of “them” based on ethnic, cultural differences.

 3. To recognize “our” ethnicity and culture as superior and “their” ethnicity and culture as inferior. 

4. “You” are considered a threat to society and must be “corrected or even expelled”.

Modern racism or cultural racism emphasizes the cultural superiority of “we” over “them”: but who are “they”?  Speaking of racism: (“they” are immigrants and refugees who come to Europe from other countries with different cultures and, in addition to economic costs, challenge the prevailing values in society and pose a threat to the security of the country with their deviant behavior). In this way, “xenophobia” is more likely to be reproduced in the form of fear of immigrants.  In Europe and North America, most non-white immigrants or people with different appearances or headgear face humiliation, discrimination and xenophobia.  This has led many researchers to look for traces of classical racism in ethnic discrimination.

  • Factors in the emergence of racism

Three different basic types of theories of how racism arises could be identified:

1. From an economic point of view, Marxist theory sees racism and fascism as the product of advanced capitalism, the logic of profit and its harshest form, which is revealed in the context of economic crises.

2. Critical theory, on the other hand, examines racism from a sociological perspective and considers it one of the consequences of the Age of Enlightenment and modernity, instrumental rationality, the ideology of progress, and especially Social Darwinism in the West.  Also, the legacy of colonialism and slavery in Europe and the United States and the formation of nation-states in the West have led to the formation of nationalism, Europeanism and Westernism, which is the basis of racist thinking.

3. The third theory, which is more psychological, emphasizes “xenophobia” as the source of racism. From this perspective, racism is rooted in extremist narcissistic tendencies that value similarities and are afraid of otherness and “alienation” and perceive them as a threat to themselves.

2.4. Economic and value concerns and their relationship to the rise of racism

 The experience of National Socialism in Europe underscores the role of crises and economic hardship in the rise of racism. Today, as economic hardship is increasing, the fear of a deterioration of the situation has reinforced the far-right, populist and xenophobic tendency, especially among vulnerable groups. Vulnerable or less educated groups, as well as those who have less contact with immigrants, have a more negative image of immigrants and their acceptance.

These groups are concerned about the loss of their status, jobs, housing, health care, services and welfare, and other civil rights. They are concerned about the deterioration of their social values and the increase in crime.  They consider immigrants to be the main cause of the deterioration of the situation. At the same time, in Europe, the decline of social welfare and the widening of class differences resulting from the globalization of neoliberalism have paved the way for the growth of the populist and nationalist right.

But on the other hand, the dramatic rise in racism in some rich countries, such as the Scandinavian countries, shows that economic hardship is not the only reason for the growth of xenophobia and racism. In Switzerland, one of the wealthiest countries, the anti-immigration party has had a dominant political position since the nineties. Despite declining votes in recent years, the party’s leading political position is still maintained. Although the Greens have grown strongly in recent years, they are still far from the top political position, and the political position of the anti-racist parties is still far from the main decisions. The trend of political change in Swiss society was different from that in most European countries. In most European countries where the crimes of the Second World War have been dealt with and where racism has been marginalized in the past, it is growing stronger and entering the arena of decision-making. In Switzerland, too, anti-racist groups have been marginalized in the past and are now regrouping and reinforcing themselves.

It can therefore be said that it is not only low-income groups that are attracted to racism and xenophobia. Today, the type of electoral vote depends not only on the financial strength of the individual or the vote to improve economic conditions, but also on the role of values in their confrontation. Many wealthy voters vote for left-wing parties to defend equal human values and stand up against racism. Statistics show that the percentage of voters for anti-foreign parties among the working class, people with low education, men, the elderly and the rural population is much higher than among women, youth, students, the educated, the middle class and in the big cities. This suggests that, in addition to the economic factor, different values also play a role in the way different groups are aligned.

  •   The relationship between immigration and asylum and racism

Research and surveys show that the growth of immigration has sometimes increased with the increase of a negative view of immigrants, especially asylum seekers. However, all scientific studies show that immigrants promote the prosperity of European society economically and socially and that industry and the service sector cannot do without them. Society and the market desperately need immigrants to cope with an aging population and lower fertility and to make up for labor shortages.

It can be argued that, on the one hand, the colonial legacy of superiority in Europe has become part of the dominant culture, and on the other hand, the dominance of an instrumental rationality that sees man only in terms of profit rather than care and solidarity. Both are potentially the instrument of the growth of racism. If we were to look at immigrants only in terms of “earning power”, what would be the task of caring for older and needy people? Negative attitudes and the irrational and unjust laws of some cantons in Switzerland have prevented many waiting immigrants from working. These laws, which aim to put pressure on refugees, have not only ignored these people’s human needs, including the economic and social needs of asylum seekers, but have also caused them serious social and psychological harm.

On the other hand, these attitudes and regulations have paved the way for a growing market for undeclared work. Many immigrants serve as cheap labor and are exploited as “modern slaves.” In doing so, they generate huge profits for unscrupulous employers.

This enslavement and exploitation of illegal workers is so terrible that nothing can justify the illegal behavior of these employers. It is the excessive hardship and the restrictions on immigration law that force refugees and other immigrants to do so. However, the performance of immigrants in the private household and care sector is also remarkable. Some women would not be able to afford paid work abroad if cheap labour did not jump into the gaps in their unpaid domestic work. So it is not immigration that has shaped negative views, but legal and social constraints that practically lead immigrants into a negative and inferior position and keep them under pressure even in that position.

It is these limitations that force these people to change from a positive to a negative figure. As a result, the human needs of immigrants are disregarded. For this reason, xenophobia and racism will increase the more fragile and unfavorable the situation of immigrants in the new society. These restrictions ultimately see asylum seekers as a weak and non-conformist group in society and are the target of increasing attacks by authoritarian and racist groups and ideologies.  Although in Switzerland, as in some other European countries, anti-immigration is less likely to lead to physical violence, its hidden and structural form is very disgusting and even destructive and certainly harms refugees. Experience shows that in the administrative system of some cantons in Switzerland, a kind of extremely racist attitude of employees is skilfully and cautiously applied, which the Swiss are less aware of.  Sociologically, this racist attitude has led to further isolation of refugees, and this marginalization and social isolation has inadvertently created a long line between migrants and Swiss.

  • Cultural differences and xenophobia

Many see racism as a kind of collective narcissism that leads to “xenophobia.”  Intolerance and fear of the “other”, together with the inefficiency of the model of a multicultural society in achieving cohesion in today’s world, “defending national culture”, have reinforced the negative image of immigrants and the nostalgic desire to restore the past.

The rise of extremist Islamism in the Middle East and North Africa and the rise of religious radicalism have also exacerbated these concerns. The growth of “parallel communities” with conflicting values in the country, the increase in crime, especially in marginalized areas where immigrants make up the majority of the population, have fueled these concerns. Xenophobia, anti-Islamism and conservative nationalism are therefore responses to these trends, which have only accelerated globalization and the expansion of migration.

On the other hand, some immigrants and asylum seekers are more affected by social exclusion, marginalization and social problems such as poverty, hardship, crime or violence because of their lower class and social origin, religious or cultural affiliation or structural racial discrimination.

Some of them see the expansion of their religious and ethnic affiliation and prejudices as a solution to consolidate their fragile situation. Then they refuse to accept the norms of the new society.

This leads to the spread of ethnic and foreign divisions and tensions. But these phenomena are more related to the fragile class situation of many of these individuals and to the growing social class division and structural discrimination in society than to an immutable cultural dilemma.

Pointing out the social deviations of a small number of immigrants, rather than highlighting the desire of the majority to participate in the labour market, as well as socialisation, contributes to the growth of prejudice and a negative view of immigrants. This kind of blackmail, which generalizes all these problems and attributes them to “cultural differences,” is part of the stereotype of modern racism to separate “them” from “us.”

Today, many immigrants live in Europe, but Europe does not have a comprehensive presence in their lives and they live on the margins. This problem still exists in many countries, and none of the European countries and multicultural societies has yet solved the problem of exclusion, discrimination and the gap between the majority society and immigrants.

  •   The influence of media and policy-making on the growth of racism

Research shows that in recent years, the media have increasingly portrayed a negative image of immigrants and asylum seekers as a social “problem” rather than showing a reinforcing solidarity with them and reporting on their progress and positive role in society.  In defending “traditional norms”, the media often pretend that universal values such as gender equality, democracy, children’s rights, etc. are the values of European society and that migrants completely disregard them.

When an immigrant person or group commits a crime or mistake, it is immediately revealed that they are immigrants, then a flood of stereotypical analyses of “cultural confrontation” pours out to explain these events. However, when locals commit a crime, the media are less interested in reporting on it or, when reflected, never refer to their “national culture”, but at best highlight individual and family characteristics. The root of this double standard lies in ethnocentrism, in which “we” are the manifestation of good and these “strangers” and “the others” are the manifestations of evil.  Transmitting a collective sense of guilt for an immigrant’s individual fault by fueling the discourse about separating “us” from “them” paves the way for the growth of cultural racism.

In addition to the role of the media, most political parties have also sharpened their tone towards immigrants in the wake of immigration in 2015 and, like the media, have focused primarily on blackmailing young asylum seekers in particular as a social problem. The rise of “security” discourse, as well as political discourse that sees immigration and asylum as a threat to society, is the best propaganda feed for the growth of anti-foreign parties.  With the stricter policies of the government, parliament and bourgeois parties regarding asylum and immigration rights, the process of normalization of modern xenophobia and racism has gained unprecedented momentum. By pointing to immigrants and asylum seekers as the cause of all “insecurity” and anomalies and blaming them for the increase in violence, such as rape, reflecting on these problems without scientific and impartial research in the media further normalizes xenophobia.

  • Right-wing populist growth in America and Europe

Nationalist, populist and xenophobic parties have grown throughout Europe and the United States in recent decades. Trump’s presidency, Britain’s exit from the European Union, far-right developments in France, Italy, Germany and many Eastern European countries influence the fate of other countries, especially in Austria, Norway, Finland, Denmark, etc., where the extreme right officially participates in coalition governments or becomes allies and supporters of the ruling parties.

This has helped normalize racist discourse. However, it would be very pessimistic to talk only about the dangers of the growth of the extreme right and racism. During the polls and elections, the growth of deeply anti-racist parties increased significantly due to their outspoken anti-racist attitudes and more humane policies towards asylum seekers and immigrants. In other words, in many European countries, racist thinking and humanist thinking are growing at the same time. This polarises racist and anti-racist tendencies in politics.  Together with the emergence of moderate and humanistic currents of the young and educated. This is very hopeful and forms the basis for a bright future for a balanced Swiss society.

  •  Anti-discrimination and social policy and weakening of racist attitudes

An active anti-discrimination policy provides fertile ground for increasing the social participation and cohesion of immigrants and reducing ethnic and cultural tensions. These policies, together with the promotion of welfare and social justice, are the most effective way to combat racism. On the other hand, the elimination of discrimination certainly creates the conditions for the growth of cultural diversity and limits the policies of homogenization and conservatism that emerge from cultural racism. [8]

In the fight against poverty, unemployment, class division and exclusion, and in the struggle for the interaction of different cultures and peaceful coexistence, a new policy must be developed and pursued in Europe, especially in Switzerland, which will be balanced and successful.  Legal, educational and social facilities for immigrants must be created so that the group can find an appropriate social status and integrate into Swiss society. These legal facilities protect migrants from social and mental problems and reduce the medical, social and economic costs of the state. On the other hand, large sums of money that end up in the pockets of unauthorized employers on the black market are transferred to the state treasury.

  • Result

Another fact is that racism has historical roots in Europe and has always been based on unrealistic superiority. The fear of social decline is the other side of xenophobia. The immigration of cheap labor has long since led to the under stratification of society. But the racist politicians are not only not trying to solve this problem, they are fueling it even more. In addition, some populist media incite public opinion against immigrants and ignite this fire. In doing so, they reinforce racism, which poses a serious threat to Europe and the world. From this point of view, economic crises, cultural differences, the arrival of immigrants and refugees reinforce racism and fascism. But if we look at it from another angle, politicians should have a logical and ethical point of view, the media should move towards the restoration and consolidation of society, immigration and all its consequences are a positive thing and can solve a large part of the problems of European societies. It is therefore better to implement anti-discrimination policies and social policies in order to lay the foundations for the integration and well-being of immigrants in European societies, thereby reducing racist attitudes and laying the foundations for achieving social justice and ensuring equality.

Therefore, one of the main tasks of knowledgeable and intellectual people is to start the ideological struggle against racism and fascism, implement anti-discrimination policies and socialization policies in European countries, and try to increase public awareness and transparency. In fact, the task of this intellectual class is the same deconstruction that racism has created under the name of “the other.”

Shamsurahman Feruten, MA Changing Societies, Class B “No Human Being is Illegal? Processes of Illegalization and Criminalization of Migration”. Dr. des. Claudia Wilopo. 10.12.2022

[1] Darvishpour, M, 2015. (Stand:10. 12.2022).

[2] Jug, Ibram X,2019, S. 320.

[3] Jug, Ibram X,2019. URL:https://www.independentpersian.com/tags/. (Status:10.12.2022).

[4] Jug, Ibram X,2019, S.320.

[5] Darvishpour, M, 2015. (Stand10.12.2022).

[6] Darvishpour, M, 2015.10. 12.2022).

[7] Darvishpour, Mehrdad.  0February 3,2015. URL: examining the causes of modern racism; The case of Europe. Taken from the link: https://www.radiofarda.com/a/f12-reasons-for-racism/26827694.htmlhttps://(Status: 10.12.2022).

[8] Darvishpour, M. 15,November,2021. URL: Ethnic discrimination is the main barrier to immigrant integration. URL: https://www.radiozamaneh.com/693021/(Status: 10.12.2022).

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